East Asia, The Modern Transformation notes

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Notes from

East Asia, The Modern Transformation
by John K. Fairbank, Edwin O. Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig

After the February Rebellion of 1936 the Japanese army got a stronger voice in its government, but the policital parties became more vocally opposed to army domination. The Okada cabinet was followed by the Hirota cabinet. Military expenditures were increased and new anti-sedition laws passed. This Cabinet also expressed support for intervention in China and made a mutual defense pact with Germany against Communist Russia (the Anti-Comintern Pact). [595][WPM: This increased military budget was parallel with that of the U.S. and other nations.]

In the February 1936 election the Seiyukai party was more militarist, the Minseito party more a supporter of civilian control of the military. The Minseito won 205 seats, the Seiyukai 174. But in 1937 both parties united in opposing the military's dominance in the Cabinet. "The election of 1937 reveals the extent to which, in spite of the drift to the right in the balance of government elites, the Japanese people had maintained a moderate, antimilitary position." [596]

To reduce the chances of local conflicts in northern China from leading to a general war, the Japanese took several steps to reign in the most bellicose elements of its military. A minority in the government and Army thought the Chiang (Nanking) government would ally with the U.S.S.R. to push the Japanese out of northern China. But on July 7, 1937 "a local, unplanned clash" took place between Chiang's troops and the Japanese near Peiping, leading to a general conflict. The Japanese saw China's leaders as incompetent and corrupt men who endangered all Asia by their alliances with Western powers. The Chinese saw the Japanese not as Asian brothers bringing good government, but as another bunch of imperialist invaders. Chiang was willing to risk a war with Japan partly because of his new, Nazi-trained army and a truce with the communists. Once the fighting started, civilians in the Japanese government were unable to control the Army. [598-599]

"Throughout the early part of 1939 Japan sought to strengthen its position against the Soviet Union and to bring pressure to bear on the Chinese government by establishing an alliance either with Germany or Italy or with Britain." But Germany wanted an alliance against the British Empire and United States, while the Japanese navy and Foreign ministry only wanted an alliance against the Soviet Union." The German - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 1939 caught the Japanese by surprise. The pro-British, pro-American Admiral Yonai Mitsumasa formed a cabinet from August 1939 to July 1940 and repelled German diplomatic efforts.[607] [WPM: But President Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull wanted to fight Japan and reduce Asia to an American sphere of influence, and so did not take advantage of this opportunity for peace.]

German victories in the field won over the Japanese, and the Tripartite Pact was signed in September 1940. [608]

Anarchist groups were active in China during the first two decades of the 20th century. Peter Kropotkin's Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution was particularly popular among Chinese opposed to the old order. [662]

The Versailles Peace Conference of 1919 rejection of the idea of national self-determination for non-white nations had a negative impact in China. [665] [WPM: Fairbank et al imply that Woodrow Wilson was overruled by other nations, but in fact he headed the committee that killed the Japanese proposal to self-determination and equality for Asians.]

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